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Text on Italian Unification
Italian unification, 1815--71
The years of failure, 1815--49
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Until 1776, Italy is divided into many states for historical reasons:
* Foreign control of land in Italy. eg. Spain in the South.
* City states were the basis for wealth and government since the 15th century onwards.
* The Papacy had always retained control over its own land.
1776, Napoleon invaded Italy and by 1799 the whole of the peninsular except Venetia (Austrian). The result:
* Divided Italy into three:
* The Kingdom of Italy.
* The Kingdom of Naples.
* The rest was absorbed into the French Empire.
* Representative government was introduced along French lines with elected assemblies. The old states had been autocratic and conservative.
* Italian laws were standardised with the French legal codes.
* There was a shift of power from the upper classes to the middle classes.
* These caused both nationalism (pro-Italy and anti-France) and liberalism to grow. An early factor in the development of the Risorgimento (the movement to unite Italy).
1815, Napoleon is defeated at the Battle of Waterloo:
* The Congress of Vienna is set up, representing the conservative forces of Europe, and led by Metternich of Austria.
* The Congress of Vienna restores Italy to its pre-Napoleonic state. Reasons:
* To make it difficult for France to regain its former power.
* To stop nationalist and liberal movements growing by restoring autocracies.
The states of Italy from 1815 onwards, with much Austrian influence over most:
* Naples and Sicily (the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), the South of Italy:
* Ruled by Ferdinand I, a Spanish Bourbon.
* The area was poverty-stricken, largely rural, mostly illiterate peasants.
* Autocratic rule; cruel and `efficient'.
* The Papal States:
* Pope has temporal control, as well as spiritual control (ie. control of both Church and State). Popes were invariably Italian.
* The clergy had a stronghold over freedom of expression: the Inquisition and torture.
* The Pope was despotic and relied on Austrian force to keep control.
* Very backward, mostly rural, 2% literacy rurally.
* Modena, Parma and Tuscany:
* Three independent duchies (areas ruled by dukes).
* Fairly good rulers, but all linked to the Austrian Hapsburgs.
* Lombardy and Venetia:
* A new kingdom formed under an Austrian viceroy (a `vice-king') -- direct Austrian control.
* The richest part of Italy.
* Lombardy was the most fertile province for agriculture.
* Venetia was the richest trading centre.
* Government was well-organised: a strict police force, organised spying, censorship, no freedom of speech, thousands of political prisoners, as well as high taxes and dissatisfaction.
* Piedmont (aka. the Kingdom of Sardinia):
* Ruled by King Victor Emmanuel I.
* Conservative and reactionary, but popular since he was Italian (from the House of Savoy). This was the only truly Italian-ruled state.
* A fairly poor country.
Revolt in Naples, 1820
----------------------
Causes:
* 1815, Ferdinand I is restored.
* 1818, Ferdinand increases his power: censorship, freedom of expression impossible. He is also in financial trouble, so cuts back on public spending.
* 1820, revolution in Spain causes a revolution in Naples, led by a priest, and supported by 100 cavalry NCOs (non-commissioned officers), 30 Carbonari (a secret society of nationalists). Gained support, General Pepe took over.
Result:
* Ferdinand grants a new constitution.
* The Carbonari promise to reform the Church and redistribute land to peasants.
Revolt in Sicily, 1820
----------------------
Causes:
* Movement in Sicily for separation from Naples.
* Riot in Palermo following the riot in Naples.
* Middle class opposed separatism, and were prepared to use force against Sicily.
Austrian action:
* Metternich was worried about the success of the revolt in Naples.
* Ferdinand `asked' him to intervene.
* Austrians invaded and regained control. Severe repressions followed of the revolt leaders.
Revolt in Piedmont, 1820
------------------------
Causes:
* Victor Emmanuel I wiped out all traces of French improvement and returned to old, autocratic and conservative ways.
* The spark for the revolt was news of the Naples revolt.
Results:
* Victor Emmanuel I abdicates in favour of Charles Albert, who ruled as regent.
* Charles Albert grants a liberal constitution and supports the revolt.
* 1821, the Austrians intervene and put the revolt down (with Piedmontese help) at the battle of Nevara.
* Charles Felix (the brother of Victor Emmanuel I) is now king. He reimposes an autocratic and repressive regime. He remains king until 1831. Piedmont is returned to a conservative state.
All the 1820 revolts have failed.
Revolts of 1831
---------------
General points:
* Mixed causes, as before.
* Ideas of unification more advanced, but still based on the Carbonari.
* Sparked off by events in France.
* Liberalism still important as well.
Revolt in Modena:
* Masterminded by Enrico Misley, who wanted a united Italy and constitutional government. However, he was betrayed by Duke Francesco IV of Modena, who had offered support.
* Riots ensued, spreading to Parma, and were put down by local troops. Savage reprisals followed.
* The revolt had failed.
Revolt in the Papal States:
* Professional middle classes opposed clerical rule (anti-theocracy).
* Savagely repressed by papal troops.
Assessment of 1820/31 revolts:
* Weakened by being localised/parochial.
* Movements were not co-ordinated.
* Mainly middle classes interests after initial revolt: support lacking.
* Middle class had no army. The Austrians did.
Revolutions of 1848--9
----------------------
General causes:
* Nationalist demands: get rid of the Austrians, and unite Italy.
* Liberal demands: political freedoms, constitutions, administrative reforms.
* Wider European crisis: 1846--7, harvest failures caused unrest throughout Europe.
Sicily
- - -
Causes:
* 1830, Ferdinand II made King of Naples. Promised reforms, but they did not last.
* 1840s, a period of political repression.
* 1840s, coincided with an outbreak of cholera.
1848, revolt:
* Call to arms by Sicilians, clashes with Neapolitan troops. Fighting continued for months.
* Sicilians won and set up their own provisional government. A separatist movement.
Naples
- - -
Causes:
* Ferdinand II.
* Followed on swiftly from the riots in Palermo, Sicily.
1848 revolt:
* Huge demonstration in the city of Naples.
* Ferdinand II agreed to a parliament, a national guard, and freedom of the press.
* However, the peasants continued to revolt, and demanded land reform (ie. redistribution of land). This was used as an excuse to appoint a conservative government.
* Rising suppressed in Naples. The army was sent to suppress the revolt in Sicily and reunification of Naples and Sicily was forced.
Other revolts in Italy
- - - - - - - - - - -
* February 1848, constitutions promised in Tuscany and Piedmont.
* March 1848, the Pope promised a constitution for the Papal States.
* Rulers of Modena and Parma had to leave their duchies.
Wars against Austria
- - - - - - - - - -
* Milan (part of Lombardy at this time, controlled by Austria): revolt against the occupying force of Austria. Successful, since Austria was busy with the revolt in Vienna.
* Venetia: revolted against Austria, who surrendered, and a republic was set up.
* Piedmont: Charles Albert I was persuaded to declare war on Austria by the revolutionaries in Milan. May 1848, Charles Albert defeats the Austrian Army.
Problems
- - - -
The move against Catholicism:
* The Pope's military commander had disobeyed orders and taken his army to join Charles Albert.
* The Pope distanced himself from this with the Allocution, which stated his intent: not war with Austria, drew back from the idea of a united Italy, returning to absolutism and reactionism.
* Many nationalists in Italy were also Catholics (including Charles Albert). Where did their loyalties lie? Most people ignored the Pope. Many liberal and nationalist movements became markedly anti-clerical, especially extremists. Not a united front against the Austrians.
June 1848, Austrian reinforcements arrive:
* July 1848, Charles Albert is defeated at the battle of Custozza.
* Result: Piedmont withdrew troops from Lombardy; left with Austrians. Venetians continue the war alone.
Mazzini and the Roman Republic, 1849
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Dramatis personae: Guiseppe Mazzini:
* A republican, democrat, and nationalist (pro-unification). A radical and revolutionary.
* 1831, set up `Young Italy' to replace the Carbonari.
Events:
* War of the Princes had failed, now the War of the People.
* 1849, the chief minister of the Pope was murdered. Rioting followed in Rome, and the Pope fled to Naples. A republic was established in Rome.
* March 1849, Mazzini arrived in Rome and was elected head of a Triumvirate (a council). Rule was ``fair, enlightened and tolerant''.
* The Pope asked for help. An army of 20,000 was sent by the (Second) French Republic against the Roman Republic.
* June 1849, Rome fell to the French forces, despite a strong defence led by Garibaldi.
* 1850, the Pope returned to Rome.
The end
- - - -
* August 1849, Venetia surrenders to the Austrians.
* March 1849, Charles Albert I re-enters the war against the Austrians. Defeated at the battle of Novara. He abdicated in favour of his son, Victor Emmanuel II.
* Tuscany: the Austrians won the duchy back for the Grand Duke.
* Modena/Parma: Austria restored the old leaders.
Reasons for failure
- - - - - - - - - -
* Lack of co-operation between the revolutionary groups
* Liberals thought there should be comstitutions in each state before unification; the radicals disagreed.
* Different ideas about how to unify Italy:
* Mazzini and a republic.
* Pope Pius IX and a confederation.
* Charles Albert and a kingdom.
* Provisional government were inexperienced and under-resourced, and therefore easy to topple.
* Lack of popular support except at the height of the revolts. There was both a fear of radical social reform and a lack of interest in liberal reform.
* Military superiority of Austria once their own revolutions had been squashed (perhaps the most important).
Positive results
- - - - - - - -
* The new Piedmont king, Victor Emmanuel II, was patriotic.
* The defence of Rome brought Garibaldi to the fore.
* Piedmont became more liberal, with a constitution (`Statuto').
Unification, 1849--61
=====================
Cavour and the war of 1859
--------------------------
1852, Cavour became prime minister of Piedmont.
1853, the Crimean War:
* Russia was fighting France and Britain.
* Piedmont joined in on the side of France. Reasons:
* France needed more troops.
* France wanted the Austrians to help.
* In turn, Austria needed a guarantee that Piedmont would not invade Lombardy while its own troops were absent.
Peace conference for the Crimean War:
* Cavour met and befriended Napoleon III, and kept in touch with Prince Jerome Napoleon. Piedmont had forged strong links with France.
July 1858, the Plombi\'eres Agreement:
* Cavour met Napoleon III in great secrecy.
* Agreement reached: Napoleon would drive the Austrians out of Lombardy, in return for military and financial help, and Piedmont ceding Savoy and Nice to France.
* January 1859, a Secret Treaty was signed.
France did not want to be blamed for an attack on Austria, it wanted the Austrians to appear to be at fault:
* Cavour wrote an anti-Austrian speech for Victor Emmanuel II.
* April 1859, Austria issued an ultimatum demanding demobilisation by Piedmont (Austria did not have enough money to fight a war). Cavour refused to comply, and Victor Emmanuel started the war.
War of 1859 with Austria:
* Very short war, only 7 weeks. Violent and horrible.
* Two major defeats for Austria, thousands of casualties.
Napoleon III called a truce with Austria. Reasons:
* The Prussians could mobilise and help Austria, since France was a threat to them.
* The Austrian army was still strong, and it seemed unlikely that France could take Venetia.
* The bloodshed was unpopular at home in France.
* Cavour had started to overstep the Plombi\'eres Agreement. He seemed to be encouraging revolutions:
* Revolt in Tuscany. The Duke had left for Vienna; upper class group had declared an interest to unite with Piedmont.
* This spread to Modena and Parma. Piedmontese soldiers and officials stepped in and set up a provisional government.
* Revolution encouraged in the Romagna.
1859, Armistice of Villafranca:
* Agreed between Napoleon III and the Austrian Emperor (Franz Joseph). There was no Piedmont representative.
* Lombardy was given to France to pass on to Piedmont.
* Venetia was to remain Austrian.
* The idea of an Italian confederation under the Pope was reconsidered.
* The rulers of Tuscany, Modena and Parma were to be restored. (Not carried out.)
* Victor Emmanuel was forced to sign it. Cavour was furious, and resigned (although he later took back his position).
A further peace conference is held in Zurich:
* Piedmont was allowed to send representatives.
* Agreement over larger states:
* Piedmont got Lombardy.
* Austria got Venetia.
* There was a disagreement over the smaller states. Plebiscites were held there to determine their future:
* France gained Savoy and Nice.
* Tuscany voted to join Piedmont.
* Emilia (Modena, Parma and Romagna) voted to join Piedmont.
Result: Piedmont had increased in size and power, but the Austrians were still present in Italy.
Cavour, Garibaldi and the South, 1860--1
----------------------------------------
Dramatis personae: Garibaldi
1860, revolt in Palermo, Sicily, against the King of Naples:
* Probably organised by Mazzini and members of the Italian National Society (founded in 1857).
* Garibaldi was diverted from North Italy. He collected a group of young men, `The Thousand'. The plan was to help the revolt in Sicily.
* Cavour refused to help Garibaldi.
* Garibaldi lands at Marsala, Sicily.
* Advance on Palermo.
* Wins Sicily against the odds; Neapolitan army defeated.
* Garibaldi becomes Dictator of Sicily.
* Invades Naples and forces the King to surrender.
1860, Cavour invades the Papal States. Reasons, either:
* Helping Garibaldi unite Italy.
* Worried about Garibaldi's power. If Garibaldi takes Rome, France (being a Catholic power) might intervene. Evidence: Cavour does not invade Rome in 1860.
Garibaldi gives the South over to Piedmont and Victor Emmanuel II.
March 1861, the Kingdom of Italy is proclaimed:
* Plebiscites for the Papal States.
* However, no Rome (under Papal control and French influence) or Venetia (Austrian-occupied).
* Victor Emmanuel is recognised as the King of Italy. He retained his Piedmont title.
* The centre (capital) was in Turin (the capital of Piedmont).
* Piedmontese administration was used throughout the country, with government centralised on Piedmont.
* Limited constitutional monarchy.
Unification completed, 1862--71
===============================
Result: `Brigandage', civil war/rioting:
* `Wars' broke out in Naples and Sicily against Piedmontese officials. The army retaliated.
* Something like civil war ensued, but was made worse by local feuds and vendettas.
* June 1861, Cavour dies, leaving the problem behind him.
* By about 1865, peace eventually returned, but only with the use of martial law and violent oppression.
1862, Garibaldi attacks Rome:
* Rome is still occupied by French troops.
* There is pressure from liberals and nationalists to reclaim the city and make it the capital.
* Garibaldi attacks with a volunteer force and no official backing.
* The whole adventure is a disaster.
1866, Venetia ceded to Italy:
* 1860s, Prussia is in a struggle with Austria for control of Germany.
* Secret Treaty 1: Italy would help Prussia against Austria in return for Venetia.
* Secret Treaty 2: France would remain neutral if Austria gave them Venetia. France would then pass this on to Italy.
* June 1866, the Seven Weeks War. Italy is defeated by Austria at the Battle of Custozza. Prussia defeats Austria; Austria ceded Venetia to Napoleon III, who handed it to Italy.
* 1866, this is confirmed by the Peace of Prague.
1867, Garibaldi's second attack on Rome:
* 1864, the Italian government agreed to protect Rome from attack and to move its capital to Florence. The French then agreed to leave Rome.
* Garibaldi invades Rome with a volunteer force.
* Garibaldi is defeated, and the French troops return to Rome.
1870, Rome becomes the capital of Italy:
* 1870, the Franco-Prussian war starts. France is defeated by Prussia.
* Victor Emmanuel takes the opportunity of France's defeat to occupy Rome.
* A plebiscite is held, and Rome votes for union with the rest of Italy. Church and state are finally separated, and Rome is made the capital of the Kingdom of Italy.
By 1871, Italian unification is complete:
* Constitutional monarchy.
* Voting restrictions: male, over 25, literate, tax-paying. This was 2% of the population.
* Parliament was conservative and unrepresentative.
* Prime ministers were weak and short-lived.
The end. Almost.
Historiography
==============
Traditional Italian view
------------------------
View: Unification was achieved through the co-operation of Cavour, Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi, who were united in both thought and deed. Italy achieved unification by herself.
Historians: Late nineteenth century Italian historians. Others, eg. Arthur J. Whyte.
Reasons:
* There was a lack of evidence to the contrary. Much evidence (eg. Cavour's correspondance) had not been published, and some had been tampered with by state-paid archivists in order to bolster the traditional view.
* Romanticism was popular at the time, and led to the view that great men could decisively influence the course of history.
* Nationalist historians wanted to inspire Italian nationalism by covering up disagreements between the major figures.
Value: Not very accurate. What evidence there was has been interpreted to fit a political message.
Idealist
--------
(Idealist as in pertaining to ideas.)
View: Unification is seen as the culmination of the ideas of the Risorgimento, liberalism and nationalism, and the success of these being inevitable. The idea of universal Catholicism was defeated when the Pope lost temporal control of Rome.
Historians: Benedetto Croce.
Reasons:
* Croce had a philosophical view of history.
* He was also a liberal and nationalist.
Value: Ignores short term factors. Not very good.
Fascists
--------
View: Essentially a version of the traditional Italian view, nationalism left in and liberalism taken out, since fascism is illiberal.
Reasons: History rewritten by the Mussolini for propaganda reasons only.
Value: Completely biased.
Role of individuals revised: Cavour and Garibaldi
--------------------------------------------------
View: Cavour and Garibaldi did not trust each other, and Italy was unified despite this.
Historians: eg. Denis Mack Smith.
Reasons: A rigorous and detailed study of contemporary sources, including new material. It is also an attack on the traditional Italian view.
Value: Historically good since it is based on rigorous source work. We must still be careful of historians' political intentions.
Role of individuals revised: Napoleon III
------------------------------------------
View: Unification occurred through the interests in gaining power of both Cavour and Napoleon III, even though neither neither considered the South of Italy. Takes the emphasis away from Italian figures: a less nationalistic interpretation.
Historians: L. C. B. Seaman.
Marxist interpretation
----------------------
View: The Risorgimento was a middle class movement, and unification was a way for the middle classes to gain power. Nationalism was the means by which the middle classes defeated the old order and subjugated the working class. Marxists therefore implicitly oppose unification and nationalism.
Reasons:
* Political: To counter middle class interpretations.
* Historical: Based on Karl Marx's historical ideas that all history is a class struggle, and that economic change causes social change causes political change. These ideas are politically motivated, because they support the conclusion that a working class revolution is inevitable.
Value: The past is forced into a preconceived pattern for political reasons, so is not very good history.